TYPE Hypothesis and Theory
PUBLISHED 23 September 2022
DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.920513
The relation between rhythm 
OPEN ACCESS processing and cognitive abilities 
EDITED BY
Stefanie Peykarjou,  during child development: The 
Heidelberg University,  
Germany role of prediction
REVIEWED BY
Anna Bánki,  
University of Vienna,  1
Austria Ulrike Frischen *, Franziska Degé 
2 and Gudrun Schwarzer 3*
Daniela Traficante,  1 Department of Music, University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany, 2 Music Department, Max 
Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, 
Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics, Frankfurt, Germany, 3 Department of Developmental 
Italy
Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Sports Science, University of Giessen, Giessen, Germany
Martin I. Antov,  
Osnabrück University,  
Germany
Rhythm and meter are central elements of music. From the very beginning, 
*CORRESPONDENCE
children are responsive to rhythms and acquire increasingly complex rhythmic 
Ulrike Frischen  
ulrike.frischen@uol.de  skills over the course of development. Previous research has shown that the 
Gudrun Schwarzer  processing of musical rhythm is not only related to children’s music-specific 
gudrun.schwarzer@psychol.uni-giessen.de
responses but also to their cognitive abilities outside the domain of music. 
SPECIALTY SECTION
However, despite a lot of research on that topic, the connections and underlying 
This article was submitted to  
Developmental Psychology,  mechanisms involved in such relation are still unclear in some respects. In 
a section of the journal  this article, we aim at analyzing the relation between rhythmic and cognitive-
Frontiers in Psychology
motor abilities during childhood and at providing a new hypothesis about this 
RECEIVED 14 April 2022 relation. We consider whether predictive processing may be  involved in the 
ACCEPTED 02 September 2022
PUBLISHED 23 September 2022 relation between rhythmic and various cognitive abilities and hypothesize 
CITATION that prediction as a cross-domain process is a central mechanism building 
Frischen U, Degé F and Schwarzer G (2022) a bridge between rhythm processing and cognitive-motor abilities. Further 
The relation between rhythm processing empirical studies focusing on rhythm processing and cognitive-motor abilities 
and cognitive abilities during child 
development: The role of prediction. are needed to precisely investigate the links between rhythmic, predictive, and 
Front. Psychol. 13:920513. cognitive processes.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.920513
COPYRIGHT
KEYWORDS
© 2022 Frischen, Degé and Schwarzer. This 
is an open-access article distributed under rhythm processing, prediction, cognitive abilities, musical rhythm development, 
the terms of the Creative Commons beat processing
Attribution License (CC BY). The use, 
distribution or reproduction in other 
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accepted academic practice. No use, 
distribution or reproduction is permitted Introduction
which does not comply with these terms.
Rhythm is a central component of music. The ability to perceive and produce rhythm 
enables people to make music. The first signs of these rhythmic abilities appear already in 
infancy (Winkler et al., 2009) and develop into adulthood (Thompson et al., 2015). In 
recent years, interest in research on rhythm processing, its development, and the connection 
to cognition has increased. Researchers found positive associations between rhythmic 
abilities and different cognitive abilities such as language, motor function, or executive 
functions (e.g., Anvari et al., 2002; Flaugnacco et al., 2014; Degé et al., 2015; Lesiuk, 2015; 
Slater et al., 2018; Trainor et al., 2018) with some even suggesting potential causal links (e.g., 
Moritz et al., 2013; Flaugnacco et al., 2015; Frischen et al., 2019; Lê et al., 2020). For 
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example, it has been shown that music training that is highly perception abilities we count the ability to discriminate between 
based on rhythm processing cannot only improve rhythmic, but rhythms and tempi, to memorize rhythms, or to detect the beat in 
also benefit language abilities in typical developing children and a rhythmic sequence. Rhythm production abilities include tapping 
children with developmental dyslexia (Moritz et  al., 2013; to a beat, reproduce rhythmic patterns, or movement to music 
Flaugnacco et al., 2015). Additionally, it has been revealed that (e.g., Thackray, 1969; Tierney and Kraus, 2015; Bouwer et  al., 
rhythm-based music training can improve executive functions in 2021). Although studies found correlations between different 
preschoolers (Frischen et  al., 2019; Williams and Berthelsen, rhythmic abilities, including correlations between rhythm 
2019). However, although a lot of research has already been done perception and production abilities in adults (e.g., Keele et al., 
on the association between rhythmic abilities and cognitive-motor 1985; Fujii and Schlaug, 2013; Tierney and Kraus, 2015), no 
abilities, the precise connections and underlying mechanisms are unitary rhythm ability could be identified. However, according to 
still unclear in some respects. To gain a better understanding of Tierney and Kraus (2015), rhythm memory and beat-based 
these relations, we will identify processes that are related to both processing seem to be two central abilities that are dissociable 
rhythm processing and cognitive-motor processing. We propose from each other in adult samples. While rhythm memory is more 
that prediction could be such a process, building a bridge between dependent on auditory memory, beat-based processing requires 
rhythmic abilities and cognitive-motor abilities. Predictive the ability to detect regularities within a temporal sequence, which 
processes are fundamental for human cognition and highly can be related to an underlying meter [Ozernov-Palchik and Patel, 
relevant for early cognitive development (Nagai, 2019). From the 2018; Note: Beat-based processing is not a uniform term. For the 
very beginning of life, children strive to identify regularities and term “beat-based” we also find terms like “metrical” (Essens and 
contingencies in their physical and social environment based on Povel, 1985) or “metric simple” (e.g., Grahn and Brett, 2009) in the 
which they make predictions (Köster et al., 2020). In the context literature; in this article we  stick to the term “beat-based 
of musical rhythm, predictive processes mean the anticipation of processing”]. Here, we focus on rhythm processing in terms of 
temporally ordered sound events which is usually formed with beat-based processing as predictive processes can be assumed to 
regard to the meter and the rhythm of a tone sequence. As be a central component of this ability, what we will illustrate in the 
predictive processes are not only of great importance in the following sections. Moreover, previous studies already indicated 
context of rhythm processing, but rather play a significant role in that this could be a bridging principle in the relation to cognitive-
a variety of cognitive processes, they can be considered as cross- motor-abilities (Ozernov-Palchik and Patel, 2018).
domain processes that have the potential to connect rhythm and Similar to the question of how many and what rhythmic 
general cognitive-motor processing. Therefore, we hypothesize abilities exactly exist, the development of rhythmic abilities in 
that prediction is particularly well suited to explain the link humans is not yet fully explored so that a detailed consideration 
between rhythmic and cognitive abilities. In the following, we will of the development of rhythmic skills has not yet been done. 
focus on the development of rhythm processing, its link to However, there is a lot of literature on certain time periods of 
cognitive and motor processing and we will describe the extent to rhythmic development with a focus on infancy and childhood up 
which our hypothesis that predictive processing is partly involved to about 7 years of age. In infancy, motor control is still under 
in the relation between rhythmic and various cognitive abilities is development. Therefore, rhythm perception abilities are ahead of 
in line with extant research findings. rhythm production abilities. At the perceptual level, first signs of 
rhythmic ability occur very early. Evidence has been found 
indicating that few days old newborns already show specific 
Rhythm processing and its responses in the electroencephalogram (EEG) to changes in 
development sound-durations, which are similar to those EEG-responses in 
adults suggesting that infants are sensitive to changes in sound 
Rhythm and meter are key components of music. According durations (Kushnerenko et  al., 2001). Moreover, it has been 
to Schulkind (1999) musical rhythm is defined as a serial pattern revealed that newborns can detect repetitive sound patterns 
of variable tone durations in a melody that unfolds within a timing (Stefanics et al., 2007) and that they are sensitive to omissions of 
framework of a recurring pattern of beats, the meter. Meter the downbeat within presented sound sequences (Winkler et al., 
organizes a series of beats into recurring patterns of stressed and 2009). These findings indicate that the predispositions for more 
unstressed beats. The beat (or tactus) is referred as one count of complex rhythmic abilities are already present in newborns. 
the meter and the most natural rate at which a listener might tap Further studies have shown that those precursor rhythmic abilities 
or clap to music. If you change the tempo of a rhythm (play a continue to develop within infancy. In a study by Phillips-Silver 
rhythm faster or slower), the relative proportions between the and Trainor (2005) it was demonstrated that infants’ encoding of 
individual beats remain the same. Tempo is defined as the pace of a meter could be influenced by moving them, indicating that they 
music, or the rate at which beats unfold over time (McAuley, 2010). can already distinguish between a double and a triple meter. 
In the literature we find several abilities that are described as Moreover, a recent EEG-study by Flaten et al. (2022) showed that 
rhythmic abilities, which are divided into rhythm perception and 6-month-old infants can extract information about meter from 
production abilities (Thackray, 1969; Bouwer et  al., 2021). As auditorily presented stimuli and transfer it to an auditorily 
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presented ambiguous rhythm. Additionally, results revealed that relies on beat-processing occurs earliest in young childhood at 
infants with musically experienced parents showed larger EEG around 2 years and improves with age.
amplitudes indicating that parental musical background influences 
music perception in infants. Similar results have been reported in 
a study by Cirelli et al. (2016) with 7- and 15-month-old infants. Rhythmic abilities and 
Their results revealed that infants’ music experience and parents’ cognitive-motor abilities
musical background influenced EEG amplitudes corresponding 
to beat and meter. In sum, results of both studies suggest that Previous research showed that rhythmic abilities do not only 
already in early development individual differences in music develop rapidly during early development, but that they are also 
experience and parental musical background affect rhythm connected to the development of non-musical abilities such as in 
processing and music processing in general. the cognitive and motor domain. In this section, we will address 
As already mentioned, rhythm production abilities develop this research and focus on the relation between rhythmic abilities 
later from early childhood on. A study with 5- to 37-month-old and three specific areas within cognitive-motor abilities: language 
children indicated that children’s spontaneous motor tempo ability, motor skills and executive functions. These relations serve 
(SMT) becomes faster with age, because they get better in the as examples based on which we will develop our hypothesis on 
ability to make repeated, targeted movements. Additionally, it predictive processes as a bridge between rhythmic abilities and 
seems that the SMT is related to the step rate of their parents, those three cognitive-motor areas. In the literature we find mainly 
suggesting that early rhythm is set by the vestibular stimulation correlative studies suggesting positive associations between 
from parental carrying (Rocha et al., 2021). In contrast to freely measures of rhythmic abilities and cognitive-motor abilities: It has 
producing rhythms such as measured by the SMT, synchronizing been shown that rhythmic abilities are associated with language 
movements to a rhythm is a more complex skill: During infancy, related abilities such as reading, or precursors of reading ability 
children are not able to fully synchronize their movements to a (Anvari et al., 2002; Thomson et al., 2006; Thomson and Goswami, 
musical beat, although they move their arms and legs in response 2008; Huss et al., 2011; Moritz et al., 2013; Tierney and Kraus, 
to music (Fujii et al., 2014) and can adapt their movements to 2013; Flaugnacco et al., 2014; Degé et al., 2015; Tierney et al., 2021; 
tempo changes to some extent (Zentner and Eerola, 2010). A more Bégel et  al., 2022; for a review see, e.g., Ladányi et  al., 2020), 
recent study on children’s drumming revealed that synchronization executive functions (Tierney and Kraus, 2013; Lesiuk, 2015; Slater 
abilities start to develop around the age of 2 years, but only in a et al., 2018), and motor abilities. The latter indicated by the finding 
tempo which is close to the children’s own spontaneous drumming that populations with motor disabilities show poorer rhythmic 
tempo (Yu and Myowa, 2021). The ability to adapt to a slower abilities than typical participants (Whitall et al., 2008; Grahn and 
tempo was only shown in older children from 30 months on. Brett, 2009; Roche et al., 2016; Trainor et al., 2018). Moreover, 
Overall, the study showed that synchronization abilities improved there are also training studies suggesting causal relationships 
from 18 over 30 to 42 months of age. These results fit well to the between rhythmic activities and language (Flaugnacco et al., 2015; 
results of previous studies, showing that synchronization abilities Lê et al., 2020), rhythmic activities and executive functions (e.g., 
are still under development in early childhood (e.g., Drake et al., Frischen et  al., 2019; Williams and Berthelsen, 2019), and 
2000; Provasi and Bobin-Bègue, 2003; McAuley et  al., 2006; rhythmic activities and gait in Parkinson’s disease (e.g., Thaut 
Kirschner and Tomasello, 2009). For example, the study of et al., 1996; for a review see Nombela et al., 2013). Theoretically, it 
McAuley et al. (2006) revealed that children around the age of would be plausible that such effects could also occur in the other 
2.5 years can manage to tap in synchrony with an isochronous direction, from the training of cognitive-motor skills to rhythmic 
(temporally equidistant) beat, which is close to their own skills. However, we do not know of any studies on this topic so far.
spontaneous drumming tempo, but fail when they are asked to In the following, we will describe some of these studies on the 
adapt their tapping to different tempi. In contrast, 4-year-old relation between rhythmic abilities and the three non-musical 
children performed significantly better in adjusting their tapping areas of language ability, motor skills and executive functions in 
to different tempi. Further results of this study found in the detail to analyse and show that one particular aspect of rhythmical 
appendix and reported by Repp and Su (2013) show that 4- and experience, beat-based processing, is particularly related to these 
5-year-olds are still not good at synchronization while 7-year-olds non-musical abilities.
perform almost on an adult level. Similarly, Drake et al. (2000) A study conducted with infants underlined the strong link 
reported that 4-year-olds already show the ability to synchronize between musical rhythm and language processing. In a training 
to different tempi and stimuli but that this ability improves further study, Zhao and Kuhl (2016) presented short waltz-like musical 
with age. pieces to 9-month-old infants in 12 training sessions to familiarize 
Taken together, findings from the literature indicate that them to the temporal structure of a triple meter. The infants were 
rhythmic abilities occur already early in life and develop during tested before and after the training sessions with respect to their 
childhood. While newborn infants are already sensitive to sound neural responses to violations of this temporal structure using 
durations and rhythmic variations, rhythm production abilities, musical and non-native syllable-like sequences. The authors found 
and especially the ability to synchronize to a beat, which highly that infants in the music-intervention group showed a larger 
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neural response to a violation of the triple meter in musical disorders show difficulties in rhythm processing as indicated 
sequences and, crucially, also in the speech-like stimuli compared through studies with children with Developmental Coordination 
to infants in a control group who did not participate in the music Disorder (DCD; e.g., Whitall et al., 2008; Roche et al., 2016) as well 
intervention. The detection of the temporal structure of the as adults affected by Parkinson’s disease (PD, a neurodegenerative 
musical pieces has thus generalized to the detection of a condition including symptoms of problems in walking and gait; 
comparable sequence of speech-like stimuli. Knutsson, 1972; Grahn and Brett, 2009; Nombela et  al., 2013). 
Regarding older children, the study of Degé et al. (2015) found Whitall et al. (2008) showed that children with a diagnosis of DCD 
out that rhythm perception, and rhythm production tasks are have poor rhythmic skills. In their study they compared children 
related to measures of phonological awareness in pre-schoolers. diagnosed with DCD with gender and age-matched typical controls 
Phonological awareness refers to the ability to recognise, analyse as well as with typical adults in a finger-tapping paradigm. The 
and manipulate sounds in oral language (Stahl and Murray, 1994; results demonstrated that children with DCD are broadly able to 
Lonigan, 2006) and is an important predictor of reading and match their tapping to the different metronome tempi. However, 
writing abilities (e.g., Marx, 2007). In a correlational approach, children with DCD have particular problems to match the beat in 
they tested different measures of musical ability and phonological slow tempi. Moreover, the tapping of the children with DCD was 
awareness while controlling for IQ and socioeconomic status in more variable compared to age-matched controls and adults. While 
pre-schoolers. First, results showed that several musical abilities adults mostly show to be a bit before the beat, children tend to tap 
were related to measures of phonological awareness. However, behind the beat. The children with DCD, however, did not show any 
after controlling for the first type of error, only the music consistent relation with the beat. These results indicate that children 
production tasks related to rhythmic skills still showed a with DCD have problems in identifying and anticipating the single 
significant association with measures of phonological awareness. beats within a rhythm sequence, so that they seem to have 
Flaugnacco et al. (2014) reported similar results in a sample of difficulties in beat-based processing. Similar results have been 
children diagnosed with dyslexia. Their findings showed that revealed from studies with older people diagnosed with PD 
measures of rhythmic abilities (tapping to a metronome, rhythm indicating that people with PD have poorer rhythmic abilities 
reproduction, and meter perception) are related to reading skills. compared to typical controls (e.g., Grahn and Brett, 2009; Hsu et al., 
Additionally, in a following training study it has been shown that 2022). For example, Grahn and Brett (2009) tested older people 
a rhythm intervention can improve reading abilities in children affected by PD and typical controls in a rhythm discrimination task 
with dyslexia (Flaugnacco et al., 2015). Ozernov-Palchik et al. similar to the task described in Ozernov-Palchik et  al. (2018) 
(2018) investigated the previously reported relation between consisting of two conditions: a beat-based and a non-beat-based 
rhythmic abilities and literacy skills in more detail and pursued condition. The results revealed that people diagnosed with PD do 
the question whether there is a specific feature in rhythm that is not show differences in both conditions of the task, while typical 
especially linked to literacy skills. A specific characteristic of most controls showed a better performance in the beat-based task 
rhythms is that they have a regular underlying structure of compared to the non- beat-based task. Moreover, older adults 
recurring beats, what they term as “beat-based.” Beat-based affected by PD performed worse in the beat-based task compared 
rhythms can be  grouped into equal time units whereas in to typical controls. The results indicate that people affected by PD 
non-beat-based rhythms the beats cannot be grouped in equal also have problems in the detection and anticipation of the beat 
time units. Since there is a regular underlying structure in beat- structure indicating problems in beat-based processing. In sum, the 
based rhythms, the occurring beats can be  anticipated. In a reported studies on the relation between rhythmic abilities and 
correlational approach, the authors tested beat-based as well as motor function also indicate that beat-based processing seems to 
non-beat-based rhythm perception in a sample of 5- to 6-year-old be a fundamental ability which is linked to motor skills.
children and found relations between both the beat-based and the In addition to associations between rhythmic abilities and 
non-beat-based rhythm task and different early literacy skills. more specific non-musical abilities such as language and motor 
However, they found especially the beat-based task being a unique function, associations between rhythmic abilities and general 
predictor of one measure of early literacy skills (letter-sound cognitive abilities, such as executive functions, have also been 
knowledge) above general cognitive abilities, phonological revealed: Frischen et al. (2019) found out that a rhythm-based 
awareness, and non-beat-based processing. music intervention can enhance inhibition (a measure of executive 
Taken together, research on rhythmic abilities and language functions) in pre-schoolers. In a randomized controlled training 
abilities shows significant associations that occur already in study, children from different kindergartens received a 6-months 
infancy and could be  demonstrated in typically developing rhythm-based music intervention, a pitch-based music 
children and children with dyslexia even with a first indication of intervention, or a sports intervention three times a week. Before 
a causal link. Additionally, first evidence emerges that especially and after the intervention children’s executive functions were 
beat-based processing plays a significant role in the relation assessed. The results showed that only the rhythm group improved 
between rhythm abilities and language abilities. significantly from pre- to post-test in inhibition, suggesting that 
Regarding the association between rhythm abilities and motor rhythm training can improve inhibition skills in young childhood. 
function, studies revealed that children and adults with motoric Further measures of executive functions (working memory, 
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flexibility) were not significantly affected by any training. While corresponding beats has been generated. Such an internal 
this study suggests that rhythmic practice promotes inhibition, it representation is necessary as it provides the basis for anticipating 
leaves open which rhythmic abilities exactly were trained and how the upcoming beats. Thus, the formation of expectations and the 
they are linked to inhibition. Related to this issue the study of reduction of expectation errors represent fundamental processes 
Tierney and Kraus (2013) indicated that rhythm production in the perception and recognition of a rhythm. The rhythm in a 
ability, measured by tapping to a beat, was positively correlated piece of music “plays” with predictions to generate and convey 
with inhibition in adolescents. In this study, tapping performance tension and tension release through the violation and fulfilment 
was assessed in two conditions: tapping to the beat (paced of expectations in musical sequences. The predictive character of 
condition) and tapping in silence (unpaced condition). Inhibition a rhythm also becomes particularly obvious when a rhythm is to 
was measured with a test including an auditory and a visual be played or clapped synchronously. Imagine this process would 
condition. The results showed that tapping to the beat (paced be  a reactive instead of anticipatory process, then one would 
condition) was positively correlated with both auditory as well as always be a little behind the beat and a precise timing would not 
visual inhibition. However, the unpaced tapping condition was not be possible. Thus, synchronous production of a rhythm is only 
correlated to inhibition in any way. Moreover, it has been found possible because we  are anticipating the beat we  are about to 
that less tapping variability was associated with better performance produce. Therefore, prediction can be understood as an inherent 
in the auditory and the visual inhibition task. These results have component of perceiving and producing a rhythm.
been confirmed in a following study with a similar design However, prediction is not only a key process of beat-based 
revealing that less variable drumming was positively associated rhythm processing but also a key process of human perception and 
with inhibition in young adults (Slater et al., 2018). Since tapping cognition in general. Continuously making predictions is 
or drumming to a beat is highly dependent on beat-based indispensable and vital for survival. Making predictions can 
processing, it seems that especially this rhythmic ability is of great be considered as a working principle that aims to constantly adapt 
importance in the relation to inhibition as one measure of mental representations of the environment to its requirements by 
executive functions, which is in line with the previously reported making predictions and learning from prediction errors. This in 
findings on language abilities and motor function. However, since turn leads to a minimizing of prediction errors and to an increase of 
the reported studies did not report on relations between beat- successful interactions with an ever changing environment (see 
based processing and further executive functions apart from Köster et al., 2020). The origin of research on predictive processes 
inhibition, it remains unclear whether there is a specific relation can be traced back to basic motor learning principles as already 
solely to inhibition or whether we can assume a relation between described by Helmholtz (1867) or see (e.g., Schubotz, 2015) which 
beat-based processing and executive functions in general. have recently been transferred as a basic learning principle of the 
Taken together, there is a substantial amount of literature human brain (e.g., Friston, 2005, 2010). Viewed from this theoretical 
suggesting correlations between rhythmic and cognitive-motor framework, predictive processes occur on various, hierarchically 
skills. In addition, there are individual studies that suggest causal organized levels: from basic, often automatic motor responses to 
relationships. Interestingly, studies on the relation between controlled, higher reasoning. Feedback about prediction errors is 
rhythmic abilities and non-musical abilities from all three sent back to the levels in the hierarchy that are involved in the 
reported areas suggest that the ability to extract regularities from prediction process to adjust existing predictions and internal 
rhythms, such as in beat-based processing (e.g., Ozernov-Palchik models. This can then lead to changes on the motor up to the 
et al., 2018) is a highly relevant aspect of rhythmic experience that cognitive level (see Köster et al., 2020). Thus, predictive processing 
is connected to cognitive-motor abilities. is not a single cognitive ability, but a cross-domain working principle 
that encompasses perception, motor skills (action), and cognition.
Regarding predictive processes during development, previous 
Processes involved in the research has mainly focused on such processes outside the domain 
association between rhythmic of music or rhythm processing. Here, it has been demonstrated 
abilities and cognitive-motor that from early infancy on, children have the strong motivation to 
abilities detect regularities in their environment using statistical 
information in stimulus sequences from which they form 
Despite the reported findings indicating a close association predictions (Bulf et al., 2011). Such statistical information, e.g., 
between beat-based rhythm processing and cognitive-motor specific frequencies, redundancies, or transitional probabilities of 
abilities, it is still unanswered how these rhythm processes possibly stimuli in a sequence can be found in almost all natural events in 
exert an effect on the above-mentioned non-musical abilities. our auditory and visual environment and can be  perceived 
We propose that one possible process involved in this relation could without any instructions or feedback. Perceiving statistical 
be the process of making predictions, which is a key process in beat- information is considered a mandatory process of human 
based rhythm processing and cognitive-motor processing as well. information processing (e.g., Gómez, 2017) which allows the 
The ability to recognize a beat-based rhythm requires that an detection of patterns in structured inputs that can also serve as a 
internal representation or model of the rhythm with the basis for predicting subsequent events. Evidence of this 
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mechanism was provided in the seminal work of Saffran et al. their environment from which they form predictions leading to 
(1996) on the statistical learning of continuous speech patterns in increasingly lower prediction errors.
8-month-old infants, which led to an explosion of research on this Another line of research on the development of general 
topic. This body of research showed that infants and children predictive processes focuses on the idea that children base their 
recognize statistical information in a variety of sensory domains, predictions on their increasing prior knowledge. Stahl and 
not only in language and other auditory stimuli, but also in Feigenson (2015), for example, demonstrated that 11-month-old 
sequences of visual and haptic stimuli (e.g., Kirkham et al., 2007; infants responded to a violation of their expectations regarding their 
Fassbender et al., 2014; Aslin, 2017). physical core knowledge, and thus showed that the infants had 
Previous research on non-musical predictive processes during made a particular prediction based on that knowledge. A study by 
development is also based on the idea that children’s predictions Senju et al. (2011) provided evidence that children’s predictions 
are more and more controlled by their sensorimotor experiences. based on their own theory of mind enable them to attribute mental 
This basic idea originates in Piaget’s work on children’s states to others. Thus, it is obvious that all the acquired knowledge 
sensorimotor development (Piaget, 1952), and has been of children forms an essential basis for their predictions. In addition, 
convincingly confirmed by Nagai (2019) work on predictive especially in older children, metacognitive knowledge, knowledge 
learning. Nagai proposes two modules which represent the about one’s own cognitive processes, can also serve as a basis for 
architecture of infant predictive learning. The first module improving predictions. It can be assumed that applying predictions 
comprises the sensorimotor system which has the role of executing to one’ s own thinking in the sense of comparing learning goals to 
actions, interacting with the environment, and recording the what has been achieved can improve higher-level cognitive 
resulting sensory feedback from the environment. The second outcomes. It is thought that predictive internal representations of 
module represents the so-called predictor, which comprises the the future are constantly compared with the actual perceived 
internal model of the sensorimotor system. The aim of the outcome of internal mental and external events. In this respect, 
predictor is to accurately simulate the sensorimotor system by making predictions allows to learn from previous experiences, a 
learning to minimize the so-called predictive error. Nagai assumes process that can be applied to various domains.
that an infant’s predictor needs to develop and constantly improves Overall, it can be  summarized that children’s general 
with increasing sensorimotor experience which is in agreement predictive processes continuously improve with age and are 
with the conception of so-called forward models of motor control mainly based on the detection of regularities in terms of statistical 
in children and adults. These models also emphasize the extremely information, sensorimotor experiences, and acquired knowledge 
close connection between motor performance and prediction. from which they generate their predictions. This is in line with 
Forward models are used by the Central Nervous System (CNS) Köster et  al. (2020) who argued that a predictive-processing 
to internally simulate the behavior of the motor system in framework may provide a unifying umbrella of these at first sight 
planning, control and learning (Wolpert and Miall, 1996). When unrelated cognitive processes. They considered prediction of 
a motor signal from the CNS is sent to the periphery, a copy of this future events as a general, early learning goal which is coupled 
motor outflow (i.e., reference copy) is generated. This reference with the ongoing motivation to reduce experienced uncertainty 
copy inputs to the internal model which can estimate the sensory and to extract predictive structure from physical and social events. 
consequences of the motor command, thus generating the So far, only little research exists on the development of predictive 
predicted sensory feedback. This forward mechanism is used to processes in rhythm processing. However, we assume that the 
anticipate the sensory effects of movement. Thus, the sensory regularities from which predictions are formed in the course of 
consequences of self-generated movements can be  accurately general cognitive development can also be used for the formation 
predicted. This mechanism clearly shows the high extent to which of predictions in the processing of rhythms. For example, Trainor 
motor behavior and prediction are interwoven with each other. In et  al. (2003) and Trainor (2012) could show that even infants 
our own research we could demonstrate how increasingly correct detect deviations in regular sequences of tone lengths and thereby 
predictions in infancy correlate with the increase in infants’ motor showed their recognition of the temporal statistic within a 
experience (e.g., Schwarzer, 2014). The prediction of visual–spatial rhythmical stimulus sequence. Interestingly, Markova et al. (2019) 
object relations was improved in infants with advanced crawling provided evidence that infants can detect rhythmical information 
and manual object exploration skills, compared to infants with in social interactions such as affective touch or singing with adults. 
low motor skills. In particular, our results suggest that infants with They assume that entrainment (the process when neural 
different types of locomotion and manual object exploration oscillations couple to an external rhythm) to these social rhythms 
experiences differ in their visual processes based on which they underlies the formation of interpersonal synchrony and thus 
generate their visual–spatial predictions (Gerhard-Samunda et al., stimulates reciprocal interactions between infants and their 
2021; Kelch et  al., 2021). It can therefore be  stated that the caregivers (see also Pereira et al., 2019; Nguyen et al., 2021). With 
developing motor system acts as a control mechanism which respect to the role of sensorimotor experiences in prediction 
promotes correct predictions or reduces prediction errors. Motor processing, Phillips-Silver and Trainor (2005) impressively 
experiences allow children to identify regularities in their demonstrated that bouncing movements influenced the encoding 
environment based on which they generate internal models of of meters in infants indicating a close connection between 
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sensorimotor stimulation and temporal processing. Regarding the are based on predictive processes. While in beat-based rhythms, the 
impact of prior knowledge on rhythm-based predictions, Vuust process of prediction lies specifically in being able to predict future 
and Witek (2014) showed that adults’ rhythmic predictions are musical rhythmic events based on the rhythmic statistics that are 
inferred from their previous musical experience and described emitted, in the case of literacy skills, the prediction process lies more 
that the processing system is always in a relation between in being able to make predictions about future linguistic material on 
bottom-up and top-down processes. They provided evidence that, the basis of the linguistic structure (e.g., phonological structure, 
for example, during syncopation – a rhythmic structure that syntactic structure). For example, through statistical learning, 
violates metric expectations – the listener’s previous musical children gain knowledge about frequently occurring phonetic 
training determined the accuracy of the participant’s predictions. combinations and can make predictions about how words are put 
Thus, we assume that children apply their general drive to together from phonemes. The same applies to the translation of 
make predictions about rhythmic events as well, using similar phonemes into graphemes: Through statistical learning, children 
cognitive processes as they do for events outside the music domain gain knowledge about how phonemes are often transferred into 
and hypothesize that predictive processing in the general cognitive graphemes. Based on this knowledge, they can make predictions 
domain and in the domain of processing rhythms develops along about how words are going to be written down. Studies found that 
similar types of regularities. We  also presume that predictive in children with developmental dyslexia predictive rhythm 
processes from the rhythmic and cognitive-motor domains can processing is disturbed, which is not only reflected in poor rhythm 
influence each other, as the basic striving to make predictions can perception and production ability (e.g., Flaugnacco et al., 2014; 
be similarly manifested in both domains. Nevertheless, it could Bégel et  al., 2022) but also on a neural level: Children with 
be speculated that at least for children relatively simple rhythms developmental dyslexia show atypical neural rhythmic entrainment 
or meters are one of the best examples by which predictions and during beat perception and production (Colling et al., 2017). Thus, 
their confirmation can be experienced, which is why they could the results of the studies with typical developing children and with 
have a unique, prediction-stimulating effect. children with developmental dyslexia are in line with our hypothesis 
that prediction may be involved in the rhythmic-language relation 
and may build a bridge between the two abilities.
The role of predictive processes Also, studies that focused on the relation between rhythmic 
in the relation between rhythm processing and motor abilities are in line with the idea that prediction 
and cognitive-motor processing could be a bridging process: In the previous section, we already 
explained the strong link between the development of the motor 
As predictive processes are crucially involved in the domain of system and predictive processing. This strong link becomes also 
beat-based rhythm processing and cognitive and motor processing, evident through the above-mentioned example of adults and 
we suppose that predictive processes could serve as mechanisms children living with motor disabilities such as in DCD or PD. As 
which could partly explain the association between rhythmic reported above children with DCD and older adults suffering from 
processing and non-musical cognitive-motor abilities. We believe PD both have particular problems in processing beat-based rhythms 
that predictive processes in rhythm processing can stimulate similar (Grahn and Brett, 2009; Roche et al., 2016), which – as already 
processes in the cognitive-motor domain and thereby have the explained – heavily rely on predictive processes and especially when 
potential to build a bridge between the domains. In the following, a rhythmic motor skill is required on generating effective forward 
we will describe such a potential bridge in more detail using findings models. For example, the study of Whitall et al. (2008) revealed that 
from some of the previously mentioned studies. For example, the children with DCD have poorer tapping performance compared to 
study by Zhao and Kuhl (2016) demonstrated that infants detected typical children and adults. The finding that the tapping of children 
the metrical statistic in a musical piece and transferred it to the same with DCD is more variable without a consistent relationship to the 
metrical statistics, now however presented in speech-like stimuli beat indicate that impaired forward models with correspondingly 
and were able to make predictions on such a statistical regularity. impaired prediction processes account for the more variable tapping 
These results demonstrate that already in infancy predictive behavior. Predictive processes are especially essential for motor 
processes based on the recognition of statistical regularities can control. Without an internal model of a planned motor action and 
be used from one into another domain. Moreover, we assume that the prediction of the outcome of a movement, it is not possible to 
prediction might be  the process that builds the bridge between adapt, or correct rapidly this movement sequence, if required (e.g., 
rhythm processing and linguistic abilities. In a study with to correct tapping behavior when it is not perfectly matched to the 
pre-schoolers, Ozernov-Palchik et  al. (2018) found out that beat, or when the beat is changing). In fact, it has already been 
especially the processing of beat-based rhythms is linked to proposed that children with DCD have problems in motor control 
precursors of reading abilities. Interestingly, Ozernov-Palchik and due to impaired forward models and therefore impaired prediction 
Patel (2018) describe that prediction is involved in beat-based of motor sequences. Interestingly, it has been found, that these 
processing and how this is linked to literacy abilities. They point out impaired predictive processes in DCD are not only found in relation 
that beat-based rhythms consist of recurring temporal statistics that to motor function, but also in relation to other cognitive domains 
can be predicted and that also language, or literacy skills in specific, (Opitz et al., 2020). This finding supports the idea that predictive 
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processing can function as a cross-domain mechanism that is demonstrated in children with dyslexia (Colling et  al., 2017). 
relevant for several cognitive-motor tasks and can potentially Future results from studies with clinical samples showing atypical 
provide a link between rhythm processing and cognitive-motor (or declining) development could provide information on whether 
processing. Regarding children with DCD, it can be assumed that the malfunction is only found in predictive rhythm processing or 
the weak tapping performance can be explained through a general whether prediction is generally affected across domains (as it was 
impairment of predictive processes that influence both, the exact addressed by Opitz et  al. (2020) in children with DCD). 
anticipation of the beats and the execution and adaptation Additionally, further experimental studies could focus on the 
of movements. causal links and investigate whether rhythm training can benefit 
Lastly, predictive processes could serve as a linking process in predictive processes related to rhythm and further predictive 
the relation between rhythmic processing and inhibition (as one processes in other domains. Also, it would be  interesting to 
measure for executive functions). As reported above, the results evaluate whether this also works the other way around (e.g., in 
by Frischen et  al. (2019) demonstrated an enhancement in how far a training in predictive processes within another domain 
children’s inhibition skills after a rhythm training intervention and also improves predictive processes related to musical rhythm).
the results of Tierney and Kraus (2013) showed associations 
between beat-based processing and inhibition. As already 
mentioned, especially metacognitive knowledge or processes Conclusion
about one’s own cognitive functioning can also serve as a basis 
from which predictions can be made. It can be assumed that the With our article we  developed and substantiated the 
predictive internal representations of the to be  solved rhythm hypothesis that predictive processes could be  considered as a 
tasks (tapping/ clapping/ drumming along different beats) in the potential explanation for the link between rhythmic abilities, 
studies of Frischen et al. (2019) and Tierney and Kraus (2013) especially beat-based processing and various cognitive-motor 
would stimulate other cognitive processes linked with prediction abilities. Because predictive processes are a crucial element of 
such as attention and cognitive control (including inhibition). beat-based rhythm processing as well as of cognitive-motor 
These processes allow participants to constantly compare the abilities, it is possible that prediction as a cross-domain working 
actual perceived outcomes with the intended outcomes. Thus, principle is a central mechanism to explain the connections 
we assume that predictive processes involved in rhythm processing between rhythmic abilities and cognitive-motor abilities found in 
do also stimulate other metacognitive processes which in turn several studies. Our analyses of existing findings on associations 
have a facilitating effect on executive functions such as inhibition. between rhythm and language, motor development and executive 
This assumption goes well with the finding that children and functions are in line with our assumption. Moreover, results from 
adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) samples with atypical development indicate that a malfunction in 
have problems in synchronizing movements to a beat (Puyjarinet predictive rhythm processing can be associated with significant 
et  al., 2017). Since ADHD is associated with poor executive limitations in cognitive-motor processing. To better investigate 
functions, this finding could probably highlight the association these relations, further empirical studies are needed that capture 
between predictive rhythm abilities and executive functions. predictive processes while processing rhythms (e.g., through EEG) 
Taken together, these studies give a first indication that and cognitive-motor abilities. Randomized controlled studies can 
predictive processes could play a key role in the association give further insights into potential causal relations. Furthermore, 
between rhythm processing and cognitive-motor abilities. The fact future studies could address the question of whether certain 
that predictive processes are involved in various abilities across rhythms (e.g., highly familiar vs. unfamiliar) or certain meters 
domains points in the direction that this process could serve as a (e.g., duple meter vs. triple meter) particularly stimulate predictive 
cross-domain mechanism explaining the link between rhythm processes and, for example, examine the extent to which the 
processing and cognitive-motor abilities. Moreover, the reported complexity of a beat-based rhythm matters.
studies suggest that predictive processes in general play a key role 
during early learning and development as it is suggested by several 
researchers (e.g., Nagai, 2019; Köster et al., 2020). However, we are Data availability statement
aware that our assumption is based on only a few studies, and that 
this idea should be investigated by empirical studies specifically The original contributions presented in the study are included 
designed for this purpose. Such studies need to assess rhythm in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can 
processing as such, so that it is controlled to which extent be directed to the corresponding authors.
predictive processes are stimulated. This component is missing in 
many previous studies. Moreover, the study of populations with 
atypical developmental (or developmental decline in late Author contributions
adulthood) could give more insights in these associations. 
Specifically, it could be interesting to further investigate the neural UF, FD, and GS contributed to the conception of the 
processes associated with predictive rhythm processing as manuscript. UF and GS wrote the first draft of the manuscript. 
Frontiers in Psychology 08 frontiersin.org
Frischen et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.920513
All authors contributed to the article and approved the Publisher’s note
submitted version.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those 
of the authors and do not necessarily represent those 
Conflict of interest of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, 
the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be 
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by 
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by 
be construed as a potential conflict of interest. the publisher.
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Glossary
Beat (Tactus): One count of the meter, the most natural rate at which a listener might tap or clap to music.
Beat-based processing: The processing of beat-based stimuli; beat-based stimuli show a regular structure of reoccurring beats.
Childhood: The period from the fifth to the tenth year of life (Schwarzer and Jovanovic, 2015).
Early childhood: The period from the second to the fourth year of life (Schwarzer and Jovanovic, 2015).
Entrainment: A neural process; when neural oscillations couple to an external rhythm.
Infancy: The first year of a child’s life (Schwarzer and Jovanovic, 2015).
Newborns: The first two weeks of life (Schwarzer and Jovanovic, 2015).
Meter: Organizes a series of beats into recurring patterns of stressed and unstressed beats.
Rhythm: Serial pattern of variable tone durations in a melody that unfolds within a timing framework of a recurring pattern of beats.
Tempo: The pace of music, or the rate at which beats unfold over time.
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